Recently I did an assignment at university looking at different areas of psychology and how it is used in different careers. I choose to look at research and psychological anthropology, as both areas interest me and I have considered going into both careers. While writing the assignment I thought it would be a good idea to look back on it, and share it with others as I believe it may help them. Especially if they are curious about these careers too.
I have embedded my portfolio below for you to browse, however, it may not be the easiest to read and navigate. So, I have also copied it below as plain text.
What employability skills come with a psychology degree?
Employability is often described as an individual’s set of accomplishments both in education and in their personal life. These achievements include their skills, personal attributes, and their understanding, which will increase their chances of gaining employment in their chosen sector (Yorke, 2006). Understanding, Skilful practices, (self-)Efficacy and personal qualities, and Metacognition are used to create the acronym USEM which is used as a framework for employability (Yorke, 2010). Gaining a degree in psychology can lead to individuals developing a range of generic skills that can be applied to a variety of fields. Some of these skills include comprehending and using data, retrieving and organising information, problem-solving and reasoning scientifically, and making critical judgments and evaluations (Reddy, Lantz, & Hulme, 2013). In addition to the aforementioned, volunteering in different psychological fields while participating in a psychology degree will improve psychological literacy skills alongside broadening their experience and knowledge around certain areas (Bromnick, Horowitz, & Shepherd, 2012). It was shown that students who volunteered could self-report and reflect more efficiently allowing them to become more motivated while gaining more understanding around their future ambitions and goals (Bromnick, Horowitz, & Shepherd, 2012).
What is applied psychology?
Applied psychology covers a wide range of areas with its most basic definition being that it is the application of psychological knowledge to solve problems around humans and their behaviour (Davey, 2011). The British Psychological Society has eleven different divisions for specific areas of applied psychology. These divisions are clinical, counselling, coaching, educational and child, forensic, health, neuropsychology, occupational, sports and exercise, academics, researchers and teachers, and the Scottish division of educational psychology ("Member Networks: Divisions | BPS", 2022). There are also new branches of applied psychology that are becoming more pronounced. Some of these include community psychology, green living psychology, and printed text psychology (Bayne, & Jinks, 2013). In addition to the sectors mentioned above, there are also a wide range of non-academic careers in psychology. These careers include, but are not limited to, medical error consultant, scientific writer, research psychology at Microsoft, market research consultant, NASA research scientist, design psychologist, and psychology meets philanthropy (Donaldson, Berger & Pezdek, 2006). Throughout my e-portfolio we will examine the roles of researchers and psychological anthropologists.
Who are they?
This e-portfolio will examine the careers of researchers in general alongside psychological anthropology as this field also carries out research. Academic researchers are those who use their knowledge and expertise to formulate, study, and carry out research projects ("Academic researcher job profile | Prospects.ac.uk", 2022). These research projects will then be peer-reviewed and possibly published in a journal. However, sometimes researchers write their own books, or chapters in books, as well as working on research projects with others ("Academic researcher job profile | Prospects.ac.uk", 2022). An academic researcher is one type of researcher, however, there are many different researchers. Some other types of researchers include market research, social research, media research, research scientists, and anthropology research. Some well-known psychological researchers are Freud, Pavlov, Piaget, and Skinner. Famous anthropologists such as Meyer Fortes, Michael Silverstein, Michel Foucault, and Erving Goffman also studied psychology alongside anthropology ("Academic Influence", 2022).
One of the goals of psychological anthropology is to understand the impact our cultures may have on aspects of our psyche such as motivation, cognition, mental health, emotions, and our perception ("Psychological Anthropology Careers", 2022). Psychology and anthropology have been combined since the 1800’s, however, it was not called psychological anthropology until around the 1960’s and 1970’s when Francis Hsu suggested the name (Eller, 2018). Early anthropologists often asked psychological related questions while also borrowing from psychological theories and tests; for example, they used Rorschach’s inkblot tests (Eller, 2018). Early psychologists, such as Plato and Aristotle, also had their hand in the beginning of anthropology. They both discussed cross-cultural encounters and made speculations on the individuals from places different to their own (Eriksen & Nielsen, 2013).
Where do they work?
Many academic researchers work in an education setting, being professors or tutors, or helping students with their research. However, they do research alongside their educational role whether that be exploratory (identifying new problems), constructive (developing answers or solutions to current problems), and empirical (how long a study remains relevant and if the solution is feasible) research ("What is academic research? - AllAboutCareers", 2020).
Psychological anthropologists may also work in an education setting; however, they work in a range of other fields. They may also work in mental health facilities, counselling settings, or they may carry out independent research that they plan to publish ("Psychological Anthropology Careers", 2022).
It is also possible to become a freelance or independent researcher, however, this can be difficult to do in some circumstances. A freelance or independent researcher will most likely be self-employed, though some will consult or assist in research being done by institutions or companies. Being an independent researcher involves planning, carrying out, and acquiring funding for research independently. Although it is quite difficult to get funding as an independent researcher, it is possible if you create a non-profit organisation to do the research under; this allows you to carry out any research on any topic you want (Hessler, 2021).
What do they do?
Academic researchers have a range of roles they may undertake alongside a variety of skills they use regularly. Some of the role’s researchers partake in are; creating and carrying out individual and cooperative research projects, analysing data, preparing and delivering presentations, carrying out literature reviews, teaching students, and planning and developing future research projects ("Academic researcher job profile | Prospects.ac.uk", 2022). Some researchers are driven to learn and understand the world around them, or the subjects that interest them, while other researchers want to solve problems in the world and will do research around how to achieve that; however, there are researchers that are a combination of the two (Evans, 2015). Types of research they may carry out vary from person to person and setting to setting. In quantitative research the researcher’s role is to just observe and allow the participants to act independently, whereas in qualitative research their role is more hands on and they will discuss things with the participants to gain more information and insight (Simon, 2011). There is also field research which is a type of qualitative research where the researcher collects information outside of the laboratory; for example, communicating to those who are from different cultures living in our society or perhaps going to other areas and experiencing their life (Danelo, 2017).
Psychological anthropologists examine the relationship between culture and human behaviour, how the society we live in and experience can impact us. They may do their own research, carry out tests, and develop case studies. Some of their duties include; keeping records, meeting with patients, instructing families/students/groups, diagnosing and treating mental illnesses, analysing psychological differences among different cultures/areas, and writing and publishing their findings ("Psychological Anthropology Careers", 2022). They may also carry out ethnographical research which is a type of fieldwork where they observe a community, culture, or setting while also sometimes communicating with the people around them (Atkinson, Coffey, Delamont, Lofland & Lofland, 2007). This type of research can be both qualitative and quantitative.
How is psychology used in this area?
Psychology is used both in academic research and psychological anthropology, in some similar ways as well as different. The aim of all research is to gain more knowledge and understanding around a certain topic or interest.
By using psychology in research, we can explore a range of topics from mental health, criminal behaviour, personality and more, to learn how our psyche can be affected or changed by certain things. Through research many theories have been developed and tested, such as the social learning theory. This theory states that we learn from others by observing or communicating, however, animals have also shown to do this (Heyes, 2012). Through research it was discovered that social learning is present in two solitary species which raised the question ‘is social learning truly social’ (Heyes, 2012).
In psychological anthropology, psychology is used to examine different cultures, beliefs, and behaviours to determine how their psyche is different to what they know and how it relates in a psychological sense. As well as looking at different cultures they may also look at the past, how things used to be, and what changes have happened since then. For example, during the 1960’s a researcher looked at the difference between rural and urban children, how they learn, and if their ecocultural environment impacted their learning (Casey & Edgerton, 2005). The goal of this research was to examine if their ecocultural environment affected their development; the study showed that their schooling, or lack thereof, had the greatest impact on their development and learning (Casey & Edgerton, 2005).
Research, psychology, and anthropology can all be used together which allows for more in-depth findings along with a plethora of things to study. By doing this, a range of psychology and anthropological fields can be used such as, cognitive psychology, neuropsychology, evolutionary psychology, archeology, physical anthropology, and primatology (Eller, 2018). These fields would have been used in a study which examined the relationship between culture, brain growth, life history, and sociality (Muthukrishna, Doebeli, Chudek & Henrich, 2018).
Examing a project they worked on.
In a study by Hatano & Sugimura (2017), titled “Is Adolescence a Period of Identity Formation for All Youth? Insights From a Four-Wave Longitudinal Study of Identity Dynamics in Japan”, the research incorporates both psychology and anthropology it is a longitudinal study of identity in Japan. This study explored the relationship between social and cultural influences on the development of identity among Japanese adolescents. Participants of this study were between 13 and 16 and were between 16 and 19 when the study concluded. The Dimensions of Identity Development Scale (DIDS) is a 25-item self-report questionnaire which was designed by Koen Luyckx (2008); the questions examined things such as commitment making, ruminative exploration, and exploration in depth (Mastrotheodoros & Motti-Stefanidi, 2016). The authors of this study chose this method as it is a five-dimensional model which is best utilized in longitudinal studies, this model is also the only one which focuses on identity in the context of future plans and goals (Hatano & Sugimura, 2017). During this study they also looked at the statistics of education, marriage, and where they resided, to determine if adolescent is prolonged in Japan. Their statistical findings showed that 98.7% of junior high school students went on to attend high school, 54.7% and 16.4% then went on to university or junior college, whereas 17.9% went into employment (Hatano & Sugimura, 2017). It was also shown that the average age of marriage was 29.4 years old and 64% of 20–24-year-olds still resided with their parents; this in turn suggests that adolescence is prolonged in Japan which could lead to a more diverse development of identity (Hatano & Sugimura, 2017).
This study was done in four waves, each wave consisting of filling out the survey, the waves were conducted in 1-year intervals between March 2013 and March 2016 (Hatano & Sugimura, 2017). During the first wave there were 1,233 participants aged between 13 and 16, in the second there was 885, the third wave had 733, and the last wave included 424 participants; overall only 368 participants completed all four waves which resulted in a 70.2% loss of data (Hatano & Sugimura, 2017). In order to keep the results reliable and valid they only analysed data from participants who completed at least two of the waves (Hatano & Sugimura, 2017).
Hatano & Sugimura (2017) found that 14% of the sample showed clear identity goals which they went on to explore through gathering information, communicating with others, and confirming their sense of identity. This relates to Erikson’s development theory which states during the ages 12 to 16 the individual will explore their identity and gain a sense of self which is crucial for future development (Sokol & Justin, 2009). Whereas 6% of participants experienced rumination and worry, which hindered their identity exploration; this was shown through their weak commitment and lack of confidence in their identity (Hatano & Sugimura, 2017). However, 40% of participants showed no motivation or want to address any identity issues they faced while their scores showed a decline in commitment and in-depth exploration (Hatano & Sugimura, 2017). The study suggested this result may correspond to the perception of youth-hood where the individual does not explore or commit to any adult roles (Hatano & Sugimura, 2017). It was also shown that individuals from urban areas show lower commitment to identity than those from a rural background suggesting that urban individuals had more difficulties around forming and exploring their identities (Hatano & Sugimura, 2017).
As with all research this study has its limitations. One of which being that it only examined positive psychology and did not consider any risk behaviours or problem behaviours; this can be avoided in future studies by aiming to include all aspects of one’s psyche and the affects it may of on identity formation (Hatano & Sugimura, 2017). Secondly, only Japanese adolescents were examined, in future research it would be ideal to study other non-western cultures as well as western cultures, to analyse if there is any difference in the way we form and explore our identity (Hatano & Sugimura, 2017). Another limitation includes the number of participants, as the number dwindled as the study went on, this could have been caused by the lack of incentive to complete it (Hatano & Sugimura, 2017). The fact that this is a quantitative study could be a limitation as it may be beneficial to get a more in-depth and personal view on how culture impacts our identity; this could be done through a more qualitative research project (Hatano & Sugimura, 2017). Lastly, this study only focused on one aspect of identity, there are a range of other identities which could have been included such as educational, friendship, and workplace identity. In future projects it would be recommended to explore all regions of identity, how it is formed in different areas of the world, and how it impacts our psyche (Hatano & Sugimura, 2017).
References.
Academic Influence. (2022). Retrieved 9 February 2022, from https://academicinfluence.com/people?year-min=1200&discipline=anthropology
Academic researcher job profile | Prospects.ac.uk. (2022). Retrieved 31 January 2022, from https://www.prospects.ac.uk/job-profiles/academic-researcher
Atkinson, P., Coffey, A., Delamont, S., Lofland, J., & Lofland, L. (2007). Handbook of ethnography.
Bayne, R., & Jinks, G. (2013). Applied Psychology (2nd ed.). SAGE Publications. https://www.perlego.com/book/860013/applied-psychology-pdf
Bromnick, R., Horowitz, A., & Shepherd, M. D. (2012). Beyond employability: the benefits of volunteering for psychology students. Higher Education Academy.
Casey, C., & Edgerton, R. (2005). A companion to psychological anthropology. Malden, MA: Blackwell Pub.
Danelo, D. (2017). The Field Researcher’s Handbook ([edition missing]). Georgetown University Press. https://www.perlego.com/book/949457/the-field-researchers-handbook-pdf
Davey, G. (2011). Applied psychology. Chichester, West Sussex, U.K.: BPS Blackwell.
Donaldson, S., Berger, D., & Pezdek, K. (2006). Applied psychology. Mahwah: Lawrence erlbaum Associates.
Eller, J. D. (2018). Psychological Anthropology for the 21st Century (1st ed.). Taylor and Francis. https://www.perlego.com/book/1598067/psychological-anthropology-for-the-21st-century-pdf
Eriksen, T. H., & Nielsen, F. S. (2013). A History of Anthropology (2nd ed.). Pluto Press. https://www.perlego.com/book/665205/a-history-of-anthropology-pdf
Evans, J. S. (2015). How to Be a Researcher (2nd ed.). Taylor and Francis. https://www.perlego.com/book/1558649/how-to-be-a-researcher-pdf
Hatano, K., & Sugimura, K. (2017). Is adolescence a period of identity formation for all youth? Insights from a four-wave longitudinal study of identity dynamics in Japan. Developmental Psychology, 53(11), 2113-2126. doi: 10.1037/dev0000354
Hessler, A. (2021). After quitting my job, I crafted my own position as an independent researcher. AAAS Articles DO Group. doi: 10.1126/science.caredit.acz9842
Heyes, C. (2012). What's social about social learning?. Journal Of Comparative Psychology, 126(2), 193-202. doi: 10.1037/a0025180
Mastrotheodoros, S., & Motti-Stefanidi, F. (2016). Dimensions of Identity Development Scale (DIDS): A test of longitudinal measurement invariance in Greek adolescents. European Journal Of Developmental Psychology, 14(5), 605-617. doi: 10.1080/17405629.2016.1241175
Member Networks: Divisions | BPS. (2022). Retrieved 31 January 2022, from https://www.bps.org.uk/member-networks/divisions
Muthukrishna, M., Doebeli, M., Chudek, M., & Henrich, J. (2018). The Cultural Brain Hypothesis: How culture drives brain expansion, sociality, and life history. PLOS Computational Biology, 14(11), e1006504. doi: 10.1371/journal.pcbi.1006504
Psychological Anthropology Careers. (2022). Retrieved 9 February 2022, from https://careersinpsychology.org/psychological-anthropology-careers/
Reddy, P., Lantz, C., & Hulme, J. (2013). Employability in Psychology: a guide for departments. York: Higher Education Academy.
Simon, M. (2011). The role of the researcher.
Sokol, Justin T. (2009) "Identity Development Throughout the Lifetime: An Examination of Eriksonian Theory," Graduate Journal of Counseling Psychology: Vol. 1: Iss. 2, Article 14.
What is academic research? - AllAboutCareers. (2020). Retrieved 14 February 2022, from https://www.allaboutcareers.com/career-path/academic-research/#:~:text=Typically%2C%20academic%20researchers%20are%20employed,students%20with%20their%20personal%20research.
Yorke, M. (2006). Employability in higher education: what it is-what it is not (Vol. 1). York: Higher Education Academy.
Yorke, M. (2010). Employability: Aligning the message, the medium and academic values. Journal of teaching and learning for graduate employability, 1(1), 2-12.